What is a prophet? The easiest definition is a spokesperson for God. Aaron,
you will recall, is a spokesperson for Moses. The prophet normally is called
and frequently receives a vision. The prophets normally are clustered about
crises--Elijah and Baal worship, the Assyrian and Babylonian crises, and
the identity crisis of the post-exile community.
Prophecy usually is divided into the pre-classical and classical. Both
Moses and Samuel are prophets of the pre-classical period; both led their
people by virtue of their prophetic offices. Once kings appear on the scene,
the prophet adapts the role of adviser.
Classical prophecy began in the 700s or the eighth century during the reign
of Jeroboam II. Amos and Hosea are prophets in the north, while Micah and
Isaiah are classical prophets in the south. The prophets spoke oracles
(warnings) to the people and to the king. Each of the prophets has in mind
an agenda of God; they stand out as social-spiritual commentators. The
classical prophets bear a message to the people, recognizable in the formula
"Thus says the Lord." The message is bound up in covenant theology:
the Divine revealing itself to a chosen people and carrying out a plan
in history. Both Isaiah and Jeremiah address such a plan: Isaiah cries,
"Remember the former things, those of long ago; I am God, and there
is no other... What I have said, that will I bring about; what I have planned,
that will I do" (46.9-11). Jeremiah tells his people to stand by the
crossroads and look for the old ways where there is truth and rest for
the soul (6.16). Jeremiah, who announces the new covenant, nonetheless.
knows God's plan in history is one plan: " I will put my law within
them, and I will write it on their hearts" (31.33). A proclamation
is made to a contemporary audience, but the fulfillment comes in the unfolding
of history. The role of the prophet is not a popular one: generally, the
message is that the people have allowed their relationship with God to
become broken; the prophet points out the broken relationship and calls
for right relationship with God (spiritual) and with people (social).
The prophet's role then is as mouthpiece-leader, adviser, and social/spiritual
commentator. In the pre-monarchy, Moses and Deborah are leaders; in the
transition to the adviser role, we find Samuel; advisers are Nathan, Elijah,
Elisha, and Micaiah; Jonah and Isaiah fill the transition between adviser
and social/spiritual commentator, which becomes the role of writing prophets,
Jeremiah, for example.
The oracular categories include indictment, or the stating of an offense
such as not f obeying God or giving God proper honor; this usually includes
idolatry, ritualism, and social justice. The second category, judgment,
focuses on political and near future issues, often interpreting crises
as punishment. Instruction oracles call for a return to God by ending wicked
conduct and are usually addressed to particular situations. The final form,
aftermath oracles, affirm future hope or deliverance, usually span a protracted
time period which includes the religious Now, the socioeconomical Potential,
and the political Eventual.
To be a prophet of God is actually to bear the burden of knowing both God's
righteousness (in dealing with nations over time) and God's mercy (the
forgiveness of individuals). You will recall that Jonah questioned God's
mercy for Nineveh and was angry that the wicked should be given mercy;
recall that Habakkuk admonishes faith for those who must endure wickedness,
knowing only that vision is for the appointed time;: it speaks of the end,
and does not lie; If it seems to tarry, wait for it; it will surely come"
(2.3).
Yahwism required strict monotheism, jeopardized by religious syncretism.
Interestingly, strict Yahwism, during the Greek and Roman eras, led to
accusations of atheism (failure to worship the gods) and accusations of
sedition (failure to observe religio-political rituals). In early church
history, however, the new charge is paganism, or failure to worship one
God (brought on by Trinitarian theology). The Hebrew people, given the
fact that Cannan was not completely conquered, coexisted with the Cannanites,
intermarried, and even worshipped Canaanite gods.
Hosea's Message
The people have committed spiritual adultery as well as prostituted
themselves literally. Will justice not judge material and sexual excesses,
idolatry, and abuses of power? Hosea says, "Come, let us return to
the Lord; for it is he who has torn, and he will heal us" (6.1). Israel's
continues to sacrifice to the Baals: "When Israel was a child, I loved
him, and out of Egypt I called my son. The more I called them, the more
they went from me; they kept sacrificing to the Baals and offering incense
to the idols" (11.1-2). Hosea ends with a call to return: "Return,
O Israel, to the Lord your God, for you have stumbled because of your iniquity"
(14.1).
Traditional interpretation sees Hosea's relationship with the harlot Gomer
as paralleling that of Yahweh with faithless Israel.
The content is Hosea's marriage to Gomer the prostitute, children of harloty,
Gomer's unfaithfulness; Hosea's message is Israel's unfaithfulness and
Yahweh's judgment, faithfulness, and love.
Historical Setting
Reign of Jeroboam II (770s): Golden Age, affluence, apostasy
-Jeroboam continues military expansion, the nation's political and economic
resurgence begun by his father, Jehoash.
After Jeroboam:
-Rapid decline of the northern kingdom; a series of assassinations (four
of six kings in thirty years).
Menahem--makes Israel a vassal state by paying tribute to Tiglath-Pileser.
Pekah--raids Judah as punishment for not joining Israelite-Aramean coalition
against Assyria.
King Hoshea--unsuccessfully attempts to ally Israel with Egypt against
Assyrians.
Israel is an agricultural society, and any natural disaster that destroys
crops is seen as devastating to the people. Swarms of locusts would not
be uncommon to the near East. A continuing belief is that natural disaster
is brought about by the gods' anger. Practice included finding which deity
was involved and appeasing it; for Israel, this God was Yahweh. The Day
of the Lord is a day of vindication and punishment which can be escaped
only by the mercy of God.
Acts 2.31 has Peter using Joel's prophecy to explain the endowment of the
Holy Spirit and the need to call upon the Lord and be saved.
Joe's thrust is universalistic: "I will gather all nations" (3.2)
and "Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision!" (3.14)
Date This book has been placed variously from the ninth to the second
centuries. Considerations include use of "elders" rather than
king; the sacrificial system was in place (1.9); "Day of the Lord"
is characteristic of preexilic prophecy; Assyria and Babylonia are not
mentioned; Greeks are mentioned (3.6).
History Knowledge of other prophets (1.15: Isaiah 13.6; 2:3: Isaiah
51.3, Ezekiel 36.35; 2.10: Isaiah 13.10; 3:10: Isaiah 2.4,Micah 4.3; 3.16:
Amos 1.2, Isaiah 13.13; 3.17: Ezekiel 36.11, Isaiah 52.1; and 3:18: Amos
9.13) indicate a writer versed in pre-exilic prophecy. A post-exile setting
puts the setting in the Persian period. Choosing a time between the two
periods puts the setting closer to Haggai and Zechariah during Zerubbabel's
time--with the temple reconstructed and Edom not yet destroyed, closer
to the time of Esther.
Content The book addresses a current crisis of locusts interpreted
as the Day of the Lord, judgment for offense unidentified. In chapter two,
the plague escalates, and the prophet calls for repentance. By 2.18, the
Day of the Lord is postponed. The future Day of the Lord with a consequent
judment on the nations is addressed in 2.28-3.17. Israel prospers (3.18-20).
Amos: The Day of the Lord is Darkness
and Not Light
Amos was a shepherd and sycamore fig farmer from Tekoa, south
of Jerusalem. Traditionally, the book has been assigned to the middle or
latter years of Jeroboam
Message The Lord will punish Israel's social injustice and religious
arrogance by a military disaster. Amos' basic message is that "the
end has come for my people" (8.2). Amos has to contend with the false
priest Amaziah and tells him that his wife will become a prostitute in
the city, that his sons and daughters will die by the sword, and that the
land will be measured and divided up, and that Amaziah will die in a pagan
country (7.10-17). This pronouncement is really a judgment of the whole
nation.
Content Chapters one and two contain oracles against the nations
of Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, Moab, Judah, and Israel. Amos then
turns to Israel, which he indicts, addressing the "cows of Bashan,"
telling those anxious for the Day of the Lord that it will be darkness
and not light (5.1818-20). Israel's election (favored by Yahweh) Amos suggests
is reason for judgment. Visions of jugment include the plague of locusts
(7.1-3), a devouring fire (7.4-6), and a plumbline (7.7-0). Amaziah, the
false priest, challenges Amos in chapter seven (10-17) and is followed
by Amos' fourth and fifth visions: a basket of summer fruit (8.1-3) and
the Lord standing beside the altar (9.1-4). Oracles of judgment are uttered
in chapter eight.
Genuine faith shows itself in social justice or "doing right."
Amos condemns Israel for its treatment of the poor, needy, and afflected
(2.6-7, 4.1), and he castigates the affluently rich women, merchants, lawyers,
judges, and false priests. Amos calls on Israel to aid orphans and widoms
and avoid worldly pollution (1.26-27).
Obadiah: Day of the Lord for Wicked
Nations (Edom) and Ultimate Triumph of Yahweh
Edom, one recalls, plays a role in the fall of
Jerusalem, aiding King Nebuchadnezzar. Edom, also called Hor (Numbers 20.23)
and Seir (Genesis 36.8-10), is populated by Israel's kin, the descendents
of Esau. Edom coexisted peacefully with Israel until the reigns of Saul
and David (I Samuel 14.47; 2 Samuel 8.13-14); Judah, in fact, controlled
Edom as a satellite state until the time of lJehoram (853-842 B.C.E.) when
it successfully revolted and reestablished autonomy. Incursions were madeby
Judean kings Amaziah and Uzziah. Edom not only helped Babylon in the sacking
of Jerusalem but also occupied Judean villages until well into the Persian
period. By the time of Malachi (500-450), the Edomite kingdom has fallen
into ruins.
Message Edom has been proud but will be brought to the ground (3);
as Edom has done violence to its brother Jacob (10), it will be punished
in the Day of the Lord (8). As the Edomites have done, so will it be done
to them (15).
A sovereign Lord administers divine justice in all of creation (1,10-14,
4, 8, 15).
Obadiah concludes with a promise of restoration for a remnant of israel(21).
To the forefathers, Yahweh has promised Canaan will be an inheritance and
everlasting possession. Obadiah appeals to history to instill hope in the
Babylonian exiles and those who remained in Jerusalem as vassals to Nebuchadnezzar.
Jonah: God's Mercy
The prophet Jonah lived in the eighth century,
although the dating of the book is without certainty. Jonah, the Israelite,
is contrasted to Nineveh. The events of the book seem to come at a time
of optimism for the northern kingdom of Israel. Assyria, which has flexed
its muscles in the ninth century, has entered into decline.
Message Jonah receives a call but attempts to escape from it, and
well he should. Nineveh, after all, is second only to Babylonia in its
size and propsperity. Who would want to take the message Jonah is to take?
Jonah is to go to Nineveh and cry out against it for its great wickedness
(1.1). Jonah flees (1.1-16), is rescued by God (1.17-2.10), and is grateful;
Jonah receives a second call (3. 1-9), and Nineveh responds to his preaching.
Jonah becomes angry when God is merciful to Nineveh. Note, the man who
has just been rescued becomes angry when others are rescued! Both Jonah
and Nineveh learn a lesson: both face calamity; both respond by trying
to avert the calamity (Jonah builds a hut, and Nineveh repents); action
in itself is not sufficient, and the grace of God must intervene to bring
relief (a plant for Jonah and relenting of God toward Yahweh). Jonah wants
to negate God's grace toward Nineveh, and this, ironically, is exactly
what happens to Jonah. Jonah's anger is focus on mechanism of grace, which
he questions with respect to the wicked city of Nineveh; the message is
the sovereignty of God to bestow mercy.
Does God have a right to be lenient toward the wicked? Jonah confirms this
theodicy by showing that justice is not negated by grace. Habakkuk shows
that in time, God's justice will be done, that the extensions of grace
are not endless for nations; at issue is God's right to act outside human
judgment.
Content Chapters one and two parallel three and four: a call from
God and a response (1. 1-3, 3.1-3), pagans forced to consider the influence
of God (1.4-11, 3.4-10), a confrontation wih God relative to attitude (1.12-17,
4.1-9), and a compassionate deliverance (2.1-9, 4.10-12).
Jonah, in some ways, is a caricature of the prophet, yet he is struggling
to make sense of God's actions. Jonah receives undeserved forgiveness,
yet he is angry when God forgives others (Nineveh). The resolution to be
worked out comes in the last verse: "And should I not be concerned
about Nineveh, that great city, in which there are more than a hundred
and twenty thousand persons who do not know their right hand from their
left, and also many animals?" (4.11).
Micah: God as Deliverer
Micah is a pphet of the 800s, contemporary with isaiah,
coming from Moresheth in the hilly region of Judah between Jerusalem and
the Mediterannean. Like Jeremiah,who is to follow more than a hundred years
later, Micah preaches prophecies of doom.
Setting Micah prophesies during the reigns of Jothan, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah, who reigned during the last half of the eighth century. Some
identify the oracles of hope in chapters two, four, and seven as being
later additions.
The crisis Micah addressess has been brought about by Assyria. Micah has
been witness to the destruction and deportation of the northern kingdom.The
incursions of Assyria into Judah happen several times during Micah's life,
with the campaign of Senacherib against Jerusalem being particularly poignant.
In this campaign, several cities of Judah are destroyed.
Micah's message comes to a people who are experiencing political upheaval
and social unrest. The first half of the eighth century has brought economic
prosperity and social inequity. Micah favors a Moses-Sinai traditionin
which sins lead to judgment and punishment. Micah focuses on political
and religious crimes and attacks the exploitation of the masses generally.
The destruction of Samaria is cited as a warning to Judah of what will
befall Jerusalem.
Major themes include deliverance and righteous requirements. The Deliverer
can be interpreted on a contemporary level, although it is often interpreted
as Messianic prophecy. Refugees from the Assyrian onslaught of Assyria
in 701 gathered in Jerusalem, and the Lord brings relief relative to Hezekiah's
request. Second Kings 19.35 records the Assyrians as being slain in the
night by God's angel. Micah is clear that God will bring delivery (5.3)
after judgment is complete. Identity and timing are disputed.
Concerning righteous requirements, no verse is more quoted than 6.8: "He
has showed you, O man, what is good. And what does he require of you? To
act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God."
Structure An indictment and judgment against the people is delivered
in 1.2-2.11 followed with a reminder to hope (2.12-13). The leaders are
indicted (3) and hope is revealed for better leadership and restoration
(4.1-8). The current crisis is detailed (4.9-5.9) with a purging described
to happen in the future (5.10-15). The nation is indicted (6.1-7.7). Hope
for the nation ends the book (7.8-20). The movement is from people to leaders
to nation.
Hope is for short-term deliverance (from the pressing Assyrians) to restoration
for the nation in an indefinite future (4.1-5; 7.8-20). Micah's resolution
is clear: "I will wait for the God of my salvation" (7.7).
Nahum: the Downfall of Nineveh
Nahum declares judgment upon the wicked city of
Nineveh, the city against which Jonah is angry when God relents in punishment.
Nahmum comes a century after Jonah (sometime prior to the fall of Nineveh
in 612). We need to remembr that Nineveh is the capital of Assyria, rich
and corrupt. This time, Nineveh will not be spared.
Setting In 3.8, Thebes of Egypt has already fallen (663 under Assyrian
Ashurbanipal); by the time of Jeremiah, Thebes has been rebuilt. The kings
of Judah are Manasseh(695-642) and Josiah (640-609). Manasseh is the most
apostate of the Judean kings. He repented of his wickedness (II Chronicles
33.12) after he had been taken captive to Assyria. Many commentators connect
Nahum to Josiah, under whom Judah experienced a revival, simply because
the oracle is a favorable one.
Assyrian fell in the last decade of the seventh century, its breaking point
coming mid-century. Within a few days of Ashurbanipal's death, the Babylonians
achieved independence, and over the next two decades, they and the Medes
dismantled the Assyrias. Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, fell in 612. This
is the fall prophesied by Nahum.
Structure Begins with a psalm (1.1-8). Following this psalm, the
doom of Nineveh is pronounced and the deliverance of Judah promised. The
last part of the book details the siege of Nineveh (2.3-3.19).
Message Assyrian rule is coming to an end at the hands of the Lord;
this end is punishment for actions at the hands of the Lord. God is sovereign
and justice, sure.
"A shatterer has come up against you" (2.1). Nineveh is addressed
as a city of bloodshed (3.1) whose cruelty (3.19)has been experienced by
the surrounding peoples. Its time has come to be scattered, with no assuaging
the hurt or the moral wound (3.19). Assyria had tortured, flaying, burning
alive, and amputating body parts. Easily, one can imagine then that "All
who hear the news about you clap their hands"( 3.19).
The picute of God is that of a "jealous and avenging one... slow to
anger but great in power, and the Lord will by no means clear the wicked"
(1.2).
With Assyria fallen, one of the archvillains of the Old Testament has experienced
justice.
God's raising up the Chaldeans (Babylonians) is
astonishing and unexpected. In Habakkuk, God deals with nations. When evil
sufficiently outweighs good, judgment is required. This follows Jeremiah
18.7-10 in which successive generations are treated according to their
deeds. At times, God's mercy alleviates judgment temporarily, butin time,
the wicked are punished.
Setting Judah had its first confrontation with Babylon in 597 B.C.E.
Josiah came to the throne in 640. Habakkuk describes negative conditions
in 1.2-4. Since Josiah came to rule as a child, Habakkuk's complaints of
injustice may have happened in his early reign.
Ashurbanipal (668)in herited a glorious empire which, by the end of his
reign, was deteriorating. In the mid-650s, the Egyptians began to clear
out the Assyrians; Ashurbanipal's own brother was trying to wrest control
from him in the southeastern part of his empire. In 630, Ashurbanipal's
son has control of his kingdom, and in 627, Babylon is seized. In the next
year, Nabopolassar establishes an independent Babylonian empire and delivers
control of the new kingdom to his son Nebuchadnezzar. Assyrian rule continued
to disintegrate as the reforms of Josiah took hold.
Outline Following a prayer (1.1-4), Habakkuk utters an oracle of
judgment: Babylon is to invade Judah (1.5-11). Habakkuk is divided into
three discourses, each beginning with a prayer. The second discourse begins
with a prayer questioning God's justice (1.12-17) which is followed by
instruction from God (2.1-3) and an oracle of judgment against Babylon
(2.6-20). The third discourse is one in which Habakkuk asks for mercy (3.1-2),
reflects on the sovereign power of God (1.3-15), and accepts God's sovereignty
(3.16-19).
Message The message of habakkuk is that Assyria, the rod of God's
wrath, is passing from the scene with Judah still unpunished. Babylonia
will be the means of punishing Judah. God's justice can use a wicked nation,
like Babylonia, as an instrument of punishment. A question looked at close
up is God's justice in the face of a prospering, wicked people. Chapter
three contains a theophany which displays God's presence, sufficient to
promote trust even when answers are not forthcoming. In time, the Babylonians,
too, are to be punished; in the meantime, mortal fininteness lacks ability
to find answers. Human responsibility lies in responding to God, not in
having all the answers. The righteous, Habakkuk says, are to live by faith
(2.4).
Habakkuk begins by crying, "How long shall I cry for help?" (1.2)
Shortly, the cry turns to astonishment: "Look at the nations, and
see! Be astonished! Be astounded! For a work is being done in your days
that you would not believe if your were told" (1.5). Habakkuk's resolve
in two is to stand by his watchpost and keep watch (1). In the final chapter,
he reveals his faith: "Though the fig tree does not blossom, and no
fruit is on the vines; though the produce of the olive fails, and the fields
yield no food... yet will I rejoice in the Lord" (3.19)
Habakkuk focuses attention on justice and injustice, confidence and doubt,
salvation and judgment, God and humankind.. The ultimate picture is one
of the sovereign control of a just God in a world that often appears on
the brink of self-destruction.
